The Use of Cell Phones in Vehicles. Part 1 free essay sample

The most significant piece of driving is ensuring that you’re simply driving. Things get much increasingly muddled when you aren’t in any event, taking a gander at the street. Anyway in this confounded world, with loads of entangled individuals, with confused lives, and convoluted employments, require muddled issues to be managed yesterday it turns into an extremely confounded choice on restricting mobile phone use while driving. Anyway I solidly accept that driving and mobile phones ought not be done together, and in the wake of perusing my exposition I trust you concur. *vibrate* Glances over at cell, taking eyes off the street to snatch it and flip it open, looking back at the street for an insignificant second before perusing the content. â€Å"Hey gurl, wazup? Im sooooo going to b l8t 4 skool wat about u?† the content read. This takes three seconds to peruse. Driver at that point remedies controlling searching for any conspicuous obstructions at that point returns consideration regarding the cell to rapidly answer back. We will compose a custom exposition test on The Use of Cell Phones in Vehicles. Section 1 or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page â€Å"lol, not me, im as of now on the hello there way, sick pick u up?† Sending. Sending.. Sent. The driver returns thoughtfulness regarding the street. Inside a large portion of a moment the cell is vibrating once more. A brisk sweep of outside and the driver looks down once more. â€Å"ok! Cool, sick be prepared wen u get here.† She peruses the reaction and without turning upward rapidly answers. â€Å"good stuff,† Sendin.Sending. Crash. The driver pummels full power into another vehicle having crossed into the other path as her consideration was off the street. Inside the main tenth of a second both the front guard and barbecue of her vehicle has fell. Next the hood is crushed, it raises up-striking the breeze shield. The vehicle turns, and the back lifts out of sight, the bumpers of her vehicle fold over the other vehicle. The vehicle outline has been halted by this power as the inside it keeps moving gratitude to inactivity. Her legs harden normally preparing for sway making them snap at the knee. Inside the following tenth of second the directing wheel self-destructs, and the pole is focused on the driver chest. The fourth tenth of a second shows a totally obliterate initial two feet of the vehicle. This leaves the drivers body moving at ~88 km/h, and the rear of her vehicle pushing ahead at ~ 53. Another tenth cruises us by, the guiding segment sticks the drivers chest and she gradually starts to suffocate as he r lungs load up with blood. The sever pedal breaks, as the power of effect tears the driver’s shoes from her feet. Her head contacts the breeze shield. The back of the vehicle hits the ground once more. The seventh ten goes back and forth, depends on the entryways are torn free flying the open. Seats are not, at this point secure and they hit the driver from behind. Be that as it may, don’t stress it won’t hurt. Little miss text-while-driving is as of now dead. Miracle who’ll be getting her companion. Driving under the influence is dumb, no uncertainty about it. We’ve had it penetrated into our heads since we were scarcely mature enough to peruse not to mention drink or drive. In a test that was directed by University of Utah and lead by Drs. Plain Drews, David Strayer, and Dennis L. Hunker it was discovered that no ifs, ands or buts chatting on the telephone is similarly as perilous as driving impaired, and messaging to be all the more so. Their investigation indicated that wireless clients (this incorporates two hands held and hands free as no obvious distinction between the two was ever observed) not just drove an observably more slow, they were likewise an entire nine percent more slow when hitting the breaks, seen to have a twenty four percent contrast in their following separation. Following separation is depicted to be the distinction between ones vehicle and that of the one driving before them. While individuals who aren’t utilizing voyage on interstates, or simply driving around will have a slight variety or nearly beat of accelerating and easing back down to get the right separation far from the vehicle in front †those utilizing mobile phones appeared far more noteworthy variety as their consideration was diverted not permitting appropriate modifications in speed to happen. On this; after breaking there was nineteen percent delay after coming back to ordinary speed. What's more, three of the guineas pigs back finished the vehicle before them during the reproduction. Not a solitary one was smashed. In an indistinguishable trial except for a wireless interruption being changed into a 0.08 liquor blood level, it was seen that the drivers were even more slow than the PDA addicts. The alcoholic drivers anyway made up for themselves by having the option to follow the pace of the vehicle before them, breaking much better than the occupied driver in both postpone time and power. To finish it off they responded well to the vehicle before them breaking, didn’t endure any loss of time with recouping speed and didn’t have a solitary mishap. Each and every one, of these drivers, was tanked. So as per these outcomes mobile phones are far more terrible of an interruption then a 0.08 blood-liquor level. Anyway let’s state the outcomes were smirched a piece in light of the fact that the individuals doing them were somewhat hostile to mobile phones. After all you can’t trust all that you see on the web, anyway looking on Wikipedia you see that another examination was done fundamentally the same as the one depicted over the outcomes for it are as per the following. Means and standard mistakes (in enclosures) for the Alcohol, Base line, and Cell-Phone conditions Liquor Base line Cell Phone Total Accidents 0 3 Brake Onset Time (msec) 888 (51) 943 (58) 1022 (61) Braking Force (% of greatest) 69.6 (3.6) 56.4 (2.5) 55.2 (2.9) Speed (MPH) 52.8 (.08) 54.9 (.08) 53.2 (.07) Following Distance (meters) 26.5 (1.7) 27.3 (1.3) 28.5 (1.6) ? Recuperation Time 5.4 (0.3) 5.4 (0.3) 6.2 (0.4) As observed above , the outcomes reverberation likewise what the main investigation says, in my psyche, in this way approving it. Numerous teenagers themselves accept that PDAs are incredibly diverting anyway in spite of that, the lion's share despite everything abuse any guidelines forbidding cell use inside the vehicles. Evidently a yearly gauge of 21% of all lethal fender benders for youngsters drivers †16 to 19 years old †are PDA related. In 2007 alone phones including both messaging and bringing added to more than 1000 crashes in the only us. Anyway teenagers aren’t alone in this risky movement, half of all grown-ups matured 18 to 24 confess to messaging while at the same time driving, and 25% of all mishaps all in all are brought about by PDA use, as individuals are around multiple times bound to cause a genuine mishap when utilizing telephones. In an investigation, by Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co, a vast dominant part at 73% of the 1200 example populace confess to driving and chatting on their telephones, and 19% content. What does this equivalent out to? Nearly the number of inhabitan ts in our town are executed yearly from phone use, with ~2600 passings every year, and around 330 000 wounds. Mobile phone utilization obviously differs, and clearly the more you utilize the telephone the to a greater extent a hazard you conceivably become. About 27% of the populace are the PDA addicts utilizing their cells for the greater part the excursion, a short ascent to 30% will utilize the cells just on expressways while 85% will utilize their telephones now and again. Strangely enough nearly a similar percent (84) of the individuals utilizing the cells likewise accept that the telephones will cause expanded possibility of mishaps, and when you consider that young people who text while driving have 400% expansion of time with their eyes off the streets, it’s not difficult to perceive any reason why.

Sex Eduacation in School

Sex Education Sex instruction in the United States has encountered genuine changes in the course of recent decades. Everything began in 1981 the Reagan Administration, with government financing advancing forbearance just until-union with sex training programs. The help of this restraint just until marriage thought has expanded exponentially since 1996. In spite of the fact that this methodology seen to be advantageous to numerous in the sense at paces of teenager pregnancy would diminish. Numerous others see the restrictive idea of this way to deal with be controversial.The open likewise show the requirement for sex instruction projects to incorporate restraint as well as to incorporate data about contraceptives too. This over the top need on advancing just one sex-training technique is by all accounts at chances with what the high mass of grown-ups and adolescents believe is increasingly significant. For instance in a the national overview distributed in 2007, out of 1000 grown-ups and 100 adolescents sorted out by the National Campaign to Prevent high schooler and Unplanned Pregnancy.In the study it was recognized that despite the fact that the vast majority of grown-ups (93%) and teenagers (90%) accept that furnishing youthful youngsters with data about restraint is a significant message to give out. In a similar review more than the half of grown-ups (73%) and adolescents (56%) likewise accepted that the youngsters need much more data about forbearance and contraception than what they are given today, instead of either/or. These aftereffects of having teenagers appreciate sex training are increasingly steady with the past overview directed, for example, programs that somewhat just advance restraint just until-marriage.More reviews have shows the advancing forbearance just has gotten progressively inadequate. The clinical diary Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescents Medicine in 2005 to 2006 played out a studies coming about with overpowering help of 83% for a complete methodology and with just 36% supporting just restraint instruction. In the January and February 2007 issue of Public wellbeing Reports declared that pre-marriage sex isn't strange the same number of would think it is.According to the reports by the age 20, 77% of candidates have engaged in sexual relations, 75% have had pre-marriage sex, and 12% had hitched; by the age 44, 95% of the candidates have had pre-marriage sex. After these outcomes, numerous individuals contend that forbearance just until-marriage programs are neither down to earth nor reasonable now days. Randy Elder a team individual from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revealed in November 2009 Washington Post articles expressing that â€Å"There is adequate proof that complete hazard decrease endeavors are compelling. He further clarifies â€Å"As respects forbearance instruction, after a comparable look the team verified that dependent on various issues with the examinations introduce d to them there was lacking proof to decide their viability. † Author Kat long educates in her March 2008 article for the Gay Gender issues Web website called â€Å"Abstinence Teaching Ignores LSBT’s. † In her article it peruses â€Å"There decides suggest that lesbian, gay, promiscuous or transgender understudies won't fit into the ‘expected standards’ of human sexuality.They additionally derive same-sex connections are less important and genuine than other gender ones and may cause ‘harmful’ impacts. † Also as indicated by examination by the Washington University law Review in an article titled â€Å"Abstinence-just Education Fails African American Youth’. This article expresses that â€Å"Black adolescents’ higher paces of sexual movement couple with proof of their in a general sense various mentalities towards sex comparative with Whites young people propose that restraint just sex instruction will undoubtedly be insufficient among Black youth. A few approaches changes that are going to happen be President Obama seems, by all accounts, to be prepared to sign into law the 2010 Omnibus Appropriations Bill passed by the Congress in December 2009. This would be the first run through since 1981 that forbearance just until-marriage sex instruction projects won't be get any financing. A portion of the forbearance projects would be supplanted by exhaustive projects that focus to diminish the quantity of teenager pregnancy. This arrangement began in 2010. In the examination by Margaret J. Blythe is an educator of pediatrics at University School of Medicine and seat for the Committee on Adolescence, American Academy of Pediatrics.It states that â€Å"Comprehensive sexuality instruction accentuates restraint as the best choice for young people, yet in addition gives age-fitting, therapeutically exact conversation and data for the avoidance of explicitly transmitted contaminations and unintended pre gnancies. † People against far reaching sexuality training don’t comprehend that when this program additionally accentuated restraint while as yet offering age-fitting guidance to forestall explicitly transmitted infections (STDs) and to forestall undesirable pregnancies for teenagers who are having ex. With projects, for example, forbearance just have demonstrated to postpone sex and furthermore decline to illuminate the adolescent about condoms and safe sex. Without this data it leaves the youngsters less arranged to ensure themselves. Truth be told, in addition to the fact that abstinence is just projects inadequate it can make hurt the youthful that may rehearse it. Restraint just gives inadequate and off base data and bringing about members inability to utilize more secure sex rehearses once they start have intercourse.In a national report, sexual wellbeing dangers of youths who got forbearance just training and the individuals who got far reaching sex instruction to the individuals who got none. Youngsters who were accounted for having gotten complete sex training programs before coming cross to any sex were very more averse to report an adolescent pregnancy contrasted with different adolescents that got no sexual instruction and keeping in mind that there were no impact of restraint just training. A portion of the issues with restraint just instruction would be schools inability to assist understudies with comprehension and grasp their sexuality.This has become an issue to specific for kids for shading, who speak to a major larger part in numerous government funded schools around the nation. Such a large number of the shaded youthful teenagers are left to figure out this befuddling times and are left with pretty much nothing or even no direction. Blacks and Latinos represent 83% of high schooler HIV diseases. Dark young ladies are multiple occasions prone to get gonorrhea as their companions. Likewise a ceaseless bacterial malady known as s yphilis has expanded incredibly among the Black high school young men and gradually beginning to increment among the Latino boys.In late 2006, the government wellbeing screens declared that adolescent pregnancy went up just because that year since 15 years. Young pregnancies were progressively basic among Black and Native American high school young ladies. Since 1997 the government had contributed more than $1. 5 billion dollars in forbearance just projects, which were demonstrated to be inadequate projects in which blocked and barred data that could assist youthful with peopling to secure their own wellbeing. In any case, the President Barack Obama administration’s proposed financial plans for Fiscal Year 2010 (FY10) to evacuate subsidizing for restraint just programs.Instead to make financing for programs that have been demonstrated to be viable at decrease teenager pregnancy, deferring sexual action, or expanding prophylactic use. As anyone might expect, the main program t hat they found to work was extensive sex instruction programs. Specialist Douglas Kirby for the National Campaign to End Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy inspected investigations of avoidance programs. 66% of the 48 complete sex ed programs considers had beneficial outcomes. * 40 percent deferred sexual commencement, decreased the quantity of sexual accomplices, or expanded condoms or contraceptives use. 30 percent diminished the recurrence of sex, including an arrival to restraint. * 60 percent diminished unprotected sex. After many research done to decide if forbearance just or extensive sex instruction is better for the youthful youngsters. It has obviously indicated that extensive sex instruction doesn't urge youngsters to begin having sex, doesn't build the recurrence with adolescents engage in sexual relations, and doesn't expand the quantity of high school sexual accomplices. Simultaneously, reviews and assessments have indicated more than once no positive changes in sexual pract ices after some time with regards to restraint just programs.Even however far reaching sex training is useful to young people it is significant that understudies assume liability for their sexual wellbeing. Caitlin Myers from Southern Methodist University (SMU) class of 2009, associated with the college’s papers. As a contributing essayist to the Daily Campus, composed an article named â€Å"Sexual Health† which stresses that all understudies meaning male and female ought to need to assume liability for their sexual conduct. In general the main technique that would work most viably is extensive sex education.Children and teenagers need precise and exhaustive instruction about sexuality not exclusively to rehearse sound sexual practices as grown-ups yet in addition to evade early dangerous sexual movement that may prompt medical issues. Far reaching sexuality training is a powerful technique for helping youngsters defer inception of sex. In a few distributed and all aro und assessed examines is has indicated that sex training is a superior decision instead of restraint just until-marriage. Work Cited â€Å"Children Have the Right to Comprehensive Sex Education† by Barbara Miner. Do Children Have Rights? Christine Watkins, Ed.At Issue Series. Greenhaven Press, 2011. Barbara Miner, â€Å"We're Here. We're Sexual. Become accustomed to It,† Colorlines, May-June 2008. â€Å"Comprehensive Sex Education Is Effective† by Margaret J. Blythe. Explicitly Transmitted Diseases. Roman Espejo, Ed

How to Write a Good Literature Review

How to Write a Good Literature Review All students need to write a literature review sooner or later. Basically, it’s all about an attempt to create a full account in everything published on the chosen topic. You should place it near the beginning of your academic writing in essays, research papers, and other assignments. Learn how to write a literature review outline to earn good grades. Intro It’s possible to loosely define a literature review as an overview of all related research findings based on your chosen subject. In other words, writing it sets the entire stage for the rest of your academic paper, so it must include what is unknown and what is known. Get a better idea of what makes your study relevant and master the right literature review format. What is a literature review? Your literature review is a brief survey of everything written about a specific topic, research question, or theory. It should provide a background for further work or stand on its own. This paper is not only a basic list of sources, but it also needs to synthesize and analyze data about key issues and themes. Read this comprehensive guide to writing literature review to find out more. Types of literature review There are different approaches that can be used to effectively draft and organize your literature review: Argumentative reviews examine literature selectively to either refute or support a major argument, and its basic purpose is to develop the body of literature that can establish contrarian points of view; Integrative reviews synthesize and critique representative literature on the chosen topic to generate a new perspective or framework; Historical reviews are targeted at examining research within a certain period of time and identify possible directions for future studies; Methodological reviews are focused on specific methods of analysis; Systematic reviews should offer an overview of existing proofs; Theoretical reviews concretely examine a particular theory. What is described in the literature review? The main purpose of any literature review is to provide readers with a critically written account of current research on your topic. Use effective guidelines for writing a literature review and ensure that your paper does the following: Placing every source of information in the context of its contribution to a better understanding of your issue; Determining the area of interest; Identifying new ways to interpret previous research and focusing on its gaps; Describing a connection of every source to others; Pointing the best way for further research. Key elements of good literature review To understand how to write a great literature review, ensure that it contains the following key elements: Objective; Overview of your chosen subject; Clear categories of all sources; Specific position; Discussions of every source and its similarity with others. Structure of literature review Your literature review should be structured well, while your major ideas should flow logically. Be sure to use only relevant and current references cited based on your discipline. Present all viewpoints and terms in a comprehensive and unbiased manner to end up with the best literature review structure. Introduction The introduction must identify your chosen subject, include a strong thesis to outline the conclusions that you want to draw from your literature synthesis and analysis, and offer a discussion of its importance. Don’t forget to explain the role of your review to a specific research question. Body In the main body, you should assess and discuss research based on different organizational principles instead of addressing every source separately. Ensure that every paragraph discusses only one source. Conclusion The conclusion of your literature review must provide a brief summary of your important findings. Explain and provide useful suggestions for future studies to fill existing gaps. References Ensure that all of your references are formatted properly because writing a successful literature review is all about using them. It’s necessary to cite everything you discuss. Steps of writing literature review How to write a review of literature? Start with gathering reliable sources while being focused on your topic. Read them all with a certain purpose in your mind because you need to isolate key issues and themes related to a research question. Next, you should evaluate all sources while considering their credentials and evidence. When comparing them, think about possible gaps, omissions, and conclusions. How to write a literature review step-by-step To learn how to write a literature review paper, take a few basic steps. Ensure that it’s guided by a particular research question and decide on its correct scope, which depends on your academic assignment. Choose some reliable databases to use in your research and make their convenient list. You can find them in local libraries and online. The next step is conducting your research to find updated and relevant literature. Review all abstracts to save a lot of time and take helpful notes. You should use references and bibliographies to find other interesting sources. Review literature while asking a few important questions: What is your research question? Can these sources impact your findings? What are their research methodologies? Are there any conflicting studies? Track your thinking processes at this stage and start writing your literature review after defining its general organizational pattern. Choosing a topic for literature review If you find it hard to choose a good topic for your literature review, use a few helpful tips. Look for the subjects that are not too narrow or too broad. However, ensure that your topic is wide enough to find relevant materials and information, especially when writing a longer article review. Choose something that you like or are interested in because this academic assignment must be a survey of a current field state. The less you know about the chosen subject, the more work you will have to do to provide readers with a better insight of current research. Pick topics that are interesting to other people too. Your chosen subject should be debatable and controversial enough because your article review should contribute to existing knowledge and understanding. Writing literature review outline If you want to earn high grades, but you don’t know how to write a literature review, create its detailed outline. The right structure plays a huge role, just like in any other type of academic writing. Pay attention to detailed assignment guidelines and instructions to understand how to outline your article review correctly. Some of the most popular options include the following: By theme (when there are some strands in your subject that should be considered separately before you put them all together); Chronologically (be sure to write both descriptively and critically); By sector (based on different backgrounds); By the development of ideas (when there are some identifiable stages that should be looked at); By combinations of the above-mentioned methods or your own structure. There are many possible ways to create and organize your literature review outline. All you need to do is to make the one that best fits your topic. Tips and tricks The academic task of writing an efficient and logical literature review is challenging for many students. The good news is that you can use some helpful guidelines to simplify it: Frame it based on your research question; It should be relevant to your study; Make it clear to the audience where it will go; Use original source materials instead of reviews or summaries; Be selective and in control; Be engaged in a dialogue with sources; Treat your literature review as a specific research project. Your basic goal is to provide targeted readers with a clear appreciation of what, why, and how you do after finishing a literature review. Feel free to end it with a statement of your research question. Examples If you have no idea of how to start your literature review, find relevant and updated examples. They will teach you how to complete this academic task and what mistakes to avoid while providing you with excellent ideas and suggestions. Conclusion When writing all the above-mentioned elements of literature reviews, take into account a few basic considerations about viewpoints and authors, including: What are their other studies? Are they really reliable? Are perspectives of these studies subjective or objective? Are all topic sides represented in them? Can they significantly contribute to any broader field? If you want your literature review to provide other people with their relevant understanding of the chosen topic, it’s necessary to achieve these key goals: Emphasizing the need for future topic studies; Identifying new ways to understand research and interpret data; Placing your paper in the context of other works; Resolving existing conflicts in contradictory studies. If any of these steps seem daunting or confusing, you have effective ways to take them successfully. For example, turn to our experienced and trained custom paper writers who know everything about creating the best literature review. Our helpful services are easily available online and they won’t cost you a fortune. Use them to solve all of your academic problems easily and fast while saving a lot of free time.

Examples Of Alienation In Voltaires Candide - 1928 Words

The term alienation refers to the isolation of one’s self from a belonging society. When a person is alienated they no longer feel as if they belong or have the same views as the group or society they live in. How does one become alienated from something that they once belonged to? This is a question many have discussed throughout history. In Voltaire’s book Candide, Marx’s book The Communist Manifesto, Hoffer’s The True Believer, and Memmi’s The Colonizer and the Colonized, all these authors address man’s alienation in modern society and come up with solutions for man’s alienation within each book. In Voltaire’s Candide, the main character within the book was raised within a wealthy family. Belonging to this class, Candide did not†¦show more content†¦However, what happens when the roles of the classes turn? This is Karl Marx predicts within his book The Communist Manifesto. The proletariats are the class consi dered to be the working class, right below the bourgeoise in terms of economic gain. Karl Marx discusses the number ratio between the two classes and discloses the fact that the proletariat outnumber the bourgeoise. Within the class is a sense of belonging, the bourgeoise live their lavish lives and have most of the say so when it comes to power. Most laws and regulations work in the favor of the bourgeoise class, while the working proletariat class is the class of struggle. This is where it ties into man’s self-alienation. Marx’s idea that the working man has alienated himself from humanity by becoming a machine of society, no longer being able to think for himself but rather only thinking of survival and mass production. By focusing on production for the bourgeoise, man is unable to relate to himself or others around him. He is alienated in the fact that he no longer belongs to a community but more so to a factory. This is beneficial to the bourgeoise becaus e they would not have to fear the alliance of the workers against them if each worker felt isolated from one another. Karl Marx describes within his book the overview idea of the working man as a tool for production, a machine himself, isolatedShow MoreRelatedAn Analysis of Candide Story by Voltaire1347 Words   |  6 PagesVoltaire â€Å"Candide or Optimism† was written in the enlightenment era. Voltaire story is published in The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. Voltaire’s character, Pangolss, is a philosopher who teaches about God morals. Pangolss is also a mentor to Candide, who is the main character of the novel. Candide has a good heart but is also feel s very hopeless in life. Pangloss takes Candide under his wing and teaches him that â€Å"best of all possible worlds.† The enlightenment movement is seenRead MoreCharacter Analysis: Voltaires Candide1827 Words   |  8 PagesEnlightenment poem â€Å"Candide† translated into Romanti cism Voltaire’s â€Å"Candide or Optimism† was written in the enlightenment era. Voltaire’s story is published in The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. Voltaire’s character Pangloss is a philosophy who taught about the all-powerful God, who created the world. Pangloss indicated the world must belong to God, for he was the only divine creator. Pangolss was also a mentor to Candide, who was the main character in the novel. Candide had a good

Consumers in well condition - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8406 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION It is crucial for foods to reach the consumers in well condition, safe and in handy portion. In order to ensure a greater assurance of food safety, packagings have been widely used to protect it from microorganisms, biological and chemical reactions, promoting a longer shelf-life. Other than that, food packaging could also retard the food deterioration and retain the beneficial effects of processing (Marsh Bugusu 2007). Thus, it makes the packaging becomes a necessity in a food production process. We are able to see a very significant growth of the usage of food packaging in order to meet the industrial huge demand (Lau Wong 2000). According to Coles (2003), the principles of food packaging are the ability of protecting food products from outside influences and damage, to contain the food and to provide the consumers with ingredients and nutritional information. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Consumers in well condition" essay for you Create order Package design and fabrication have an important role in determining the prolong-life of a food product. A good selection of packaging materials and technologies used can sustain the freshness and quality of the perishable product until its time of distribution and storage. Materials that have been regularly used as food packaging are of glass, metals, paper and paperboards and plastics (Marsh Bugusu 2007). At present, there are more than 30 different types of plastics that have been used as food packaging materials such as polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (Lau Wong 2000). Plastic are formed by condensation polymerization (polycondensation) or addition polymerization (polyaddition) of monomer units (Marsh Bugusu 2007). According to EPA, there are two major categories of plastics that are, thermosets and thermoplastics (Marsh Bugusu 2007). Plastics have been admirably used because of its lightness and excellent barrier protection characteristic (Rundh 2005). Based on food packaging principle by Coles (2003), a food packaging should provide information on nutrition content, ingredients, date of manufacturing and expired date for the consumer to make a decision before buying the product. All the information needed have been printed on the packages by using inks, colors and waxes. Besides, the printings are also a part of a business strategy to attract consumers to buy theirs and yet to differentiate that particular product from other companies goods. It is almost impossible to sell a plain packaging food as it would not attract the consumer to buy it. Instead of that, all the printing inks used are not very safe at all as they can migrate into the layer of food at the interface. Various studies have been conducted to prove that migration did occur such as Aurela (2001) that stated most of the migrants that have been detected come from printing inks or adhesives used. The word migration have been derives from the Latin verbs, migrare-prime meaning, to remove or depart (to another place) and the noun migratio-prime meaning, removal or changing of habitation. Both simulants that are food simulants (FS) and food simulating liquid (FSL) such as nitric acid and olive oil have been used in conducting research and in regulating control to ascertain the migration of substances as using the original food pose kind of problematic to researchers (Katan 1996). Basically, a series of diffusion processes subjected to both thermodynamic and kinetic control could results in any migration of chemical substances from packaging into food (Conti 2008). Plastics that have been used as packaging materials also contain migrants such as additives that consists of antioxidants, stabilizers, lubricants, anti-static and anti-blocking agents (Lau Wong 2000) to ensure a satisfactory product. Plastics itself that made up of polymers which is considered to be inert, contain various kind of low molecular weight component that tend to migrate into contacting food and could contaminate that particular foodstuff (Shepherd 1981). Besides, packaging with plastic materials will also contain other components such as residual monomers that results from the polymerization reaction and oligomers and any other decomposition products or contaminants of intentional additives (Shepherd 1981). All possible migrants could cause tainting or toxicological problems to the consumer if the migration occurs at a very high level (Shepherd 1981). This issue has caught lots of attention due to carcinogenic effect and potential estogenic effects to human as exposed by some studies on toxicological effects of migration (Lau Wong 2000). On the other hand, stabilizers used in plastic manufacturing and printing ink used on the packaging surface would in the same way contaminate the food that come into contact with the plastic surface via migration. Heavy metals are well-known as widespread of environmental contaminants and as accidental food contaminants. They enter the environment mainly as results of industrial pollution and find their way into the food chain through a series of routes (Wogan 1985). However, small amounts of heavy metals are actually required in our dietary intake but a large consumption of it would pose danger to human health, causing acute or chronic toxicity (International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre 1999 cited by www.lef.org). Apart from that, heavy metals poisoning could cause damaged or retard mental and central nervous function, lower energy levels, and damage to blood composition, kidney, liver and other vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular and neurological degenerative processes that mimic Alzheimers and Parkinsons disease. Allergies are common in heavy metals poisoning and repeated long-term contact with particular metals or their compounds may even cause cancer (International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre 1999 cited by www.lef.org). Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the presence of possible heavy metals in plastic packaging food and whether these components would migrate into particular food. 1.1 Objectives of the Study Specifically, the objectives of this study were: To determine the presents of heavy metals namely Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd) and Chromium (Cr) in food and plastic food packages. To determine the concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cd and Cr) that migrates from plastic food packages into different pH solutions. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Packaging The word package refers to a container that provides a means of protecting, marketing or handling a product which comprises a unit package, an intermediate package, and shipping container (Kim et al. 2008). For the purpose of ensuring a reliable supply of safe and high-quality food products for the worlds population, packaging becomes crucial. The requirements for packaging in modern urban society differ from those in societies in developing countries (Aurela 2001). An insistent for ready-to-eat meals and takeaway food revolts explosively in urban communities, and consequently new packaging designs are needed. Among other things, packaging is a powerful marketing tool designed to be appealing to the senses of the eye and to provide information about its content. To whatever extent, the main reason of a packaging; protect its content, is global (Aurela 2001). Packaging is a form of transfer engineering designed to collate contents and extend the duration of their shelf-life in a hostile environment. For many commercial purposes, a life of 1 to 3 months is a satisfactory, and often this can be attained by wrapping in a plastic film. Such particular kind of films provides little protection against mechanical hazards, but they exclude most small, visible predators (Oswin 1982). Any packaging materials fulfill three broad functions; presentation, protection and preservation (Brown 1993). Within all three areas, a thin polymer film or rigid container, fitted to the particular application while in the same time, satisfies the requirements of producer, retailer and consumer. In addition, packaging must be added the need to operate within a set of constraints. Other general examples would be well suited with the temperature requirements of the packaging process and the chemical nature of the product involved (Brown 1993). The main function of packaging is to control the internal micro-climate within a range that impedes microbial conquest (Oswin 1982). The principal roles of food packaging are to preserve food products from outside influences and other detrimental effect, keeping the food and provide consumers with ingredient and nutritional information (Coles 2003). The aims of food packaging is to keep food in a cost-effective way that meet the needs of industry requirements and consumer desires, maintains food safety, and reduces environmental impact (Marsh Bugusu 20 07). Although one of the main functions of packaging is to protect the product during shipping, it is obvious that packaging is important both for marketing and logistic issues (Rundh 2005). The objective of food packaging other than marketing purposes, is to maintain foods original state by protecting it from air (and oxygen), loss of gas (eg: carbonated oxygen), moisture loss or incorporation, light (and UV radiation), unfamiliar aroma compounds, microbial exposure, instability of temperature and mechanical influences (Muncke 2009). Development of food packaging plays an important role in keeping the food supply amongst the safest in the world (Marsh Bugusu 2007). Simply stated, packaging keeps the benefits of food processing after the process is complete, make possible for foods to travel safely for long distances from their point of origin and still be wholesomely by the time of consumption (Marsh Bugusu 2007). In addition, packaging also makes food more convenient and gives the food greater safety assurance from microorganisms, biological and chemical changes such that the packaged foods can enjoy an extra longer shelf life. As a result, packaging became an indispensable element in the food manufacturing process (Lau Wong 2000). 2.2 Plastic Material Plastics are materials, the central of importance components which consist of those macromolecular organic compounds produced synthetically or by modification of naturally occurring products (Figge 1996). Plastics are the raw materials from whence films, plastic bottles and other products are produced. Plastics raw material manufacturers have significant, but limited scope for tailoring their products to the needs of many applications for which plastics are now used extensively (Birley 1982). Plastics are some of the most critical and widely used materials in the industrialized world. Plastic films and packaging are widely utilized in the food industry due to their adaptability, variable sizes and shapes, relative light weight, stability, barrier properties, resistance for breaking, perceived high-quality image and cost effectiveness (Jenkins Harrington 1991). Plastics can fulfill all the different functions necessary for packing, protection and food supply. On the other hand, they guarantee that, as far as possible the packaged foods reach the consumers in their original existing condition without the loss of primary ingredients and also prevent shortening of shelf-life and damage of the characteristic qualities of the products by outside influences (Figge 1996). For many food products, rigid or flexible plastics are primary choice as packaging media. Based on common thermoplastic polymers, they provide an unparalleled combination of performance, processability, conveni ence and low cost (Brown 1993). 2.3 Functional Barrier A functional barrier can be generally described as a package construction that restricts the amount of migration of a component from the package into food or food simulating liquids in amounts below a thresholds value. This threshold value is usually set up by regulatory institutions and is generally derived from toxicological evaluations. The functional barrier concept can also be defined in practical food quality terms in place of toxicological terms (Piringer et al. 1998). Resolution defined the functional barrier as Any integral layer which under normal or foreseeable conditions of use limits all possible materials transfer (permeation or migration) from any layer beyond the barrier into food to a toxicologically and organoleptically insignificant and technologically unavoidable level (Aurela 2001). Therefore, the efficiency of a functional barrier is eventually defined by a concentration of no concern (that is a conventional value) in a food or a food simulant (Aurela 2001). Moisture transfers from the wet to the dry component of these products affect the physical properties, mainly texture, and chemical composition of the food system, and subsequently affecting its quality and shelf-life (Katz Labuza 1981). The highest barrier properties are not always needed as they can sometimes be harmful by promoting anaerobic conditions, thus the application of edible films and coatings can help reduced internal and external water transfer in slightly modified and processed food products (Oswin 1982). Edible films must not only have good barrier properties, but also acceptable sensory characteristics (mouth feel, taste and aftertaste), a flexible and stretchable structure for an easy application onto the food and a composition conforming to the regulations (Guilbert 1986). 2.4 Additives In many instances, plastic packaging contains many components in addition to the base polymer. Additives are required both for the manufacturing process to give adequate results for the finished product to have the desired characteristics (Shepherd 1982). Apart from the high-polymers, plastics also contain low-molecular compounds, oligomers and monomers and particularly the so-called plastics additives such as heat and light stabilizers, anti-oxidants, UV-absorbents, lubricants and plasticizers which may be physiologically opposed. The addition of these auxiliaries is absolutely required for the processing and stability of the plastics as well as for attaining certain mechanical strength properties of the final plastics products (Figge 1980). 2.5 Migration Food packaging can interact with the packaged foodstuff by diffusion-controlled processes which mainly dependent on chemical properties of the food contact material (FCM) and the foodstuff, temperatures at packaging during heat treatment and storage, exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, and time storage of the product (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea 2004). This interaction might lead to FCM compounds leaching from the packaging to the food, which also known as migration (Muncke 2009). The main source of potential migrants is the additives incorporated in all plastics for manufacture reason or use. Apart from possibly causing tainting or toxicological problems, migration could also be unpleasant because of consequent deleterious changes in the physical properties of the package itself (Shepherd 1982). The low molecular compounds frequently have a high mobility in the plastics and in contrast to the macro-molecules, they can easily migrate from plastic packaging into a foodstuff. According to the present interpretation, the migration of plastics components in packaging into foodstuffs is fundamentally a diffusion problem (Figge 1980). During assessment of food contamination from packaging, it is not enough to only sample retail products and analyze them for certain contaminants. While this will give a good indication of real food pollutant levels, their presence in food cannot be clearly represents leaching from packaging because other contaminant sources, like processing prior to packaging are not taken into account. To ascertain the actual leaching from food packaging, contaminant levels need to be assessed over time. Such experiments are often carried out using food simulant such as water, 3% acetic acid, 10% ethanol and oils instead of actual foods (Muncke 2009). However, the use of food simulants might cause an underestimation of actual migration into food (Grob 2008). Migration frequently assessed using chemical analysis of known single substances. Such studies in other way do not cover all possible migrants (Muncke 2009). Accordingly, the extent of migration of a plastics component depends on numerous variables such as density of the plastics, the concentration of the component in the plastics, contact time between plastics and foodstuff and the temperature in the system of plastic or foodstuff (Figge 1980). It would be perfect if the migration of each additive and monomer into the packed foodstuff could be determined when the package has been filled and stored under normal conditions of practice. This would ensure that no physiologically objectionable plastics material would be admitted and plus no suitable plastics material would be refused because of an excessively assessment (Figge 1980). Because of the heterogeneous nature of the foodstuffs, great analytical difficulties are involved in the determination of migrated low-molecular plastics components. Therefore, natural migration must be simulated in tests model to determine the migrated additives and monomers in food simulants, which is more easily to be analyzed (Figge 1980). However, the results of such migration or extraction studies are only suitable for the assessment of the health-safety of plastics packaging where it is in contact with the food in practice and simulated exactly the same. It is therefore necessary to fix test temperature and times that are closely related to those of the practice. Moreover, contact media must be used which are comparable with the different foodstuffs regarding their behavior in relation to the plastics (Figge 1980). 2.6 Heavy Metals Heavy metals composition of foods is of interest because of the essential or toxic nature (Gopalani et al. 2007). Under certain condition, exposure to high levels of these metals in the environment has been relates to adverse effects on human health and the environment (Zagorska 2007). Heavy metals are potential environmental contaminants with the ability of causing human health problems if present to excess in the food we consume (Rayment undated). It is well defined as chemical elements with a specific gravity that at least five times the specific gravity of water (Lide 1992 cited in www.lef.org). Metals are the only group of pollutants that are biologically non-degradable, but undergo a biogeochemical cycle through various compartments of the environment (Golimowski 1979). Chronic low level intakes of heavy metals are known to have damaging effects on human being, since there is no good mechanism to get rid of them (Bahemuka et al. 1999). Metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and copper are cumulative poisons, causing environmental hazards and are reported to be exceptionally poisonous (Ellen et al. 1990). Throughout the course of the cycle, those toxic metals are taken up and accumulated by plants and thus enter the food chains and eventually reached to human, where the toxic metals tend to accumulate in vital organs, and display progressively increasing chronic toxic action over extended period of time. Besides the primary uptake from natural sources (e.g. soils and atmospheric precipitates), the secondary uptake due to the use of certain pesticides, fungicides and fertilizers (sewage sludge), as results of particular local or regional anthropogenic pollution (e.g. lead from automobile exhausts), and as a consequences of accidental metal contamination during food manufacturing and storage, could make severe hazards occur (Golimowski et al. 1979). In small amounts, certain heavy metals are nutritionally essential for a healthy life (www.lef.org 2010). During consumption of food in the diet, the trace metal contents of foods are directly taken into the body (Tuzen et al. 2003 cited by www.lef.org). These elements are often to be found naturally in foodstuff, fruits and vegetables, and also commercially available multivitamin products (International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre 1999 cited by www.lef.org). Heavy metals may enter the human body through food, water, air, or absorption through the skin when they come into contact with humans through agriculture and manufacturing, pharmaceutical, industrial, or residential settings. Industrial exposure accounts for a common route of exposure for adults whereas ingestion is the most common route of exposure in children (Roberts1999 cited in www.lef.org). Children may develop toxic levels from the normal hand-to-mouth activity of small children who come in contact with contaminated soil or by incidentally eating objects of non-food (dirt or paint chips) (Dupler 2001 cited by www.lef.org). There may be no foreseeable sign of an illegal or unacceptable level of residue, specifically for toxic elements such as cadmium, lead and mercury. At higher concentrations heavy metals may harmed their hosts. Those which obviously harm their host before they adversely affect human health are of lesser anxiety to the wider community (Rayment undated). Hazardous pollutants that are sets free into the environment persistently increases metal concentrations, thus contaminating the food supply. Metal contamination can take place throughout the handling and processing of foods, starting from the farm to the point of consumption (Morgan 1999). Thus, besides the growth of plants in contaminated soils and the feeding of animals on feeds containing toxic metals, other factors may also contribute to the food contamination. Physical contact between food and metal, such as processing equipment, storage and packaging containers, contribute to a significant source of metal in food. Once metals are exist in foodstuff, their concentrations are not often modified by traditional preparation and processing techniques, although in some cases washing may decrease the metal content (Morgan 1999). 2.6.1 Lead Lead in the environment has long been identified as a risk factor for humans (Berg 1994). If consumed or inhaled, it can affect nearly all systems in the body. As a consequence of many years being used in production, gas and paint, lead can be found in lots of places. Lead poisoning is a very critical issue for young children and pregnant women. Lead is found to be very toxic for growing brains and nervous systems of fetuses and small children. It is also known to affect a number of different biochemical and physiological processes, cell types, tissues, and organ systems (Andrews 1992). The main targets for the toxicity of lead include the red blood cells and their stem cells, the central and peripheral nervous systems, and the kidneys. During the past few decades, levels of exposure to lead that were once thought not to pose any hazard have since been shown to elicit deleterious effects. Furthermore, lead may affect the neurobehavioral development of newborns, infants, and children exposed to lead either in utero or postnatal (Carrington Bolger 1992). There are lots of sources of lead in our environment. Primary sources come from lead-based paint and contaminated soil, dust, drinking water, air, food and other related products. Food grown on lead-contaminated soils could also contain high lead levels (Andrew 1992). On the other hand, most lead contamination from food does not start with the food itself. Packaging or the dishes used to serve food are the main cause of most food-related lead contamination. By reducing lead in packaging and dishware, food sources of lead might be reduced (Andrew 1992). Weisel (1991) found that bread wrappers imprinted with lead-based inks could be a source of lead. If the bread bag is turned inside out and reused, lead could become part of stored food. While this source of lead was not major, bread bags are now imprinted with new dyes with very small amount or no lead. Now, bread wrappers used inside-out for food storage is of little concern as a source of lead (Weisel et al. 1991). 2.6.2 Cadmium Cadmium is naturally present in all components of the environment; it is present in all soils and sediments, unpolluted seawater and also in air of non-industrializes areas (Sherlock 1984). It is widely distributed throughout environment and is readily absorbed when eaten. A small proportion of ingested cadmium is accumulated in the kidneys in the form of a metal-protein complex. Continuous exposure to excessive amounts results in damage to the renal tubules in animals and human. Other long-term effects include anaemia, liver-dysfunction and testicular damage (Wogan 1985). Cadmium is also a byproduct of the mining and smelting of lead and zinc. Cadmium is a naturally occurring metallic element, which is one of the components of the earths crust and present everywhere in our environment. It can also be found in soils because of insecticides, fungicides, sludge and commercial fertilizers that use cadmium are used widely in agriculture (www.lef.org 2010). Cadmium is considered as the gr eatest serious contaminant of the modern age because its toxicity is a major problem in foodstuffs. Cadmium also regarded to be similar to lead, as it is a cumulative poison and the danger lies in regular consumption of foodstuffs that contain cadmium at low levels of contamination (Zagorska 2007). Cadmium emissions occur as results from two major source categories, natural sources and man-made or anthropogenic sources (www.cadmium.org 2010). Cadmium emissions to soils can be categorized in three different categories that are agricultural soils, non-agricultural soils and controlled landfills (Eggenberger and Waber 1998). According to Chandler (1996), the amount of cadmium in controlled landfills may arise from disposal of spent-cadmium containing product, non-cadmium containing product which may contain some cadmium impurities and naturally-occurring waste such as soils, food waste and grass which inherently contain trace levels of cadmium. Because cadmium is a naturally occurring component of all soils, all food stuffs will contain some cadmium and therefore all humans are exposed to natural levels of cadmium. Cadmium levels can vary widely in various types of foodstuffs. Leafy vegetables and certain staples and grain foods exhibit relatively high values from 30 to 150 ppb. Meat and fish normally contain lower cadmium contents ranges from 5 to 40 ppb. Animal offal such as kidney and liver can exhibit extraordinarily high cadmium values; up to 1000 ppb as these are the organs in animals where cadmium concentrates (WHO 1992). Cadmium sulphide and cadmium sulphoselenide are utilized as bright yellow to deep red pigments in plastics, ceramics, glasses, enamels and artist colors. They are well known for their ability to withstand high temperature and high pressure without chalking or fading, and therefore are used in applications where high temperature or high pressure processing is required (Cook 1994). Consequently, all f ood, whether it be of plant or animal origin, is exposed to and contain cadmium (Sherlock 1984). 2.6.3 Chromium Chromium is remarkable among other regulated toxic elements in the environment in that different species of chromium, specifically chromium (III) and chromium (VI), which they are regulated in different ways based on their differing toxicities. All other toxic elements, such as lead, cadmium and arsenic are regulated based on their local concentrations, irrespective of their oxidation state (Kimbrough 1999). Emissions occur to the three primary compartments of the environment which consists of air, water and soil, but there may be considerable transfer between the three compartments after initial deposition (Kimbrough 1999). The elemental composition of soils and sediments are affected by the composition of the parent rock from which they are formed. Thus, the natural concentration of chromium varies very much (Cary 1982). Several studies have estimates the chromium content in variable types of foods. Gibson (1998) for instance found that foods that rich in chromium are including brewers yeast, nuts, prunes, asparagus, mushrooms, beer and wine; meat, fresh fruits and vegetables. Cheeses were found to be good sources, while refined cereals were poor sources of cadmium. Shils et al. (1994) noted that the daily intake of chromium can vary greatly depending on the amounts of various foods present in the diet such as processed meats, whole grain products including some ready-to-eat bran cereals, and spices were found to be the best sources of chromium. Conversely, Shils et al. (1994) also stated that dairy products, fruits and vegetables contained low concentration of chromium. In most cases, wide variations in chromium levels have been found in cereals depending on their distinct origins, species and chemical forms of chromium absorbed. It is well known that chromium (VI) is absorbed effectively and more rapidly than chromium (III), but it is not converted to chromium (III) (Bratakos et al. 2002). Higher concentrations of chromium have been reported in plants growing in high chromium-containing soils (e.g., soil near ore deposits or chromium-emitting industries and soil fertilized by sewage sludge) compared with plants growing in normal soils (Grubing er et al., 1994). Different kinds of technologies that are used in food and beverage processing can also increase the chromium content in such products. The leaching of chromium from stainless steel, which has been greatly used in the food industry, is most likely the main source of chromium contamination of foods and beverages (Concon 1988). In accordance to Bratakos et al. (2002), food processing industry uses almost exclusively stainless steel containing 13-30% chromium in its processing equipment material which might leach into food during their manufacturing process. Meat products showed a wide variation in chromium content but were generally lower than that of fresh meat; this was dependent on product composition and added materials such high fat content in sausages. Guthrie (1975) reported higher chromium concentrations in meat products for example salami, is due to contamination during processing. Increased levels of chromium were also detected in dairy products that used eggs as addition ingredient (as custard samples) and chocolate; it was proposed by Fennema (2000), that cocoa may contribute considerable amounts of chromium element to the samples analyzed. There are four main routes of exposure of interest for chromium which are dermal absorption, ingestion, inhalation, and ingestion secondary to inhalation. Chromium can act directly at the site of contact or be absorbed into, or through, human tissues. CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Sample preparation Six different types of foods were selected for this study. All samples were chosen by randomly sampling and bought at local supermarket (Giant Hypermarket Shah Alam). Three packages were bought for every single sample to get the mean reading of the sample. Sample descriptions are stated as in Table 1. 3.2 Ashing of food packages This test was carried out to determine the content of heavy metals in the food packages that also indicates the total heavy metals that contained in the particular food packages. This test is important in calculation of percentage of heavy metals that leached out in migration test by using three different food stimulant that will be discuss further in this thesis. Each food packages was placed in the ceramic crucible and also covered with ceramic crucible. All three crucibles were labeled by using pencil. Muffle furnace temperature were slowly heated from room temperature to 500ÂÂ °C over a 1 hour period. The samples in the crucible were ashed for about 3 hour and 50 minutes until white or grayish ash residues were obtained. The ashes were dissolved in 10 ml concentrated HNO3 before it is covered with parafilm for 24 hour. The clear solution was then heated on a hot plate in a fume cupboard until it becomes almost dry. Another 10 ml of HNO3 were added into the crucible. The digested samples were filtered with Whatman 42 Ashless filter paper. The filtered samples were transferred into 20 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. The blank was performed in the same way. (Method adapted from Khunprasert et al. 2006) 3.3 Analysis of heavy metals in food This test was carried out to determine the content of heavy metals in the food. Each 2 g of food samples were weighted into 150 ml beaker and dried in the oven for one hour. The dried samples were kept in the desiccators to balance the temperature until it reached constant weight. The samples were then digested using 10 ml of HNO3 and covered with parafilm before it is allowed to stand for 24 hour. After 24 hour, the samples were heated on the hotplate in a fume cupboard until it becomes almost dry before it is filtered with Whatman 45 filter paper. 5 ml of filtered sample were pipette and transferred into 50 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume for dilution purpose. A blank was performed in the same manner in this treatment (Method adapted from Zaharin unpublished) 3.4 Extraction Test This test was conducted to determine the amount of heavy metals leached from the food packages into solution of pH 6.5. The food packages of 5 cm x 5 cm were immersed in the 100 ml of metals-free deionized water at 26.5ÂÂ °C for 24 hour. The beaker were covered by using parafilm in order to avoid any cross contaminant during the treatment period. A blank was prepared in the same manner in this treatment (Method based on Conti and BotrÃÆ'Â ¨ 1997) 3.5 Migration Test This test was conducted to determine the amount of heavy metals migrate from the food packages into solution of two different acid concentration. Two different packages of the same sample (5 cm x 5 cm) were immersed into both 100 ml of 3% and 4% v/v metal-free solution of acetic acid at 40ÂÂ °C for 24 hour. Table 3 states the pH condition of every solution used in these tests. A blank was prepared in the same manner for this treatment. (Method based on Conti and BotrÃÆ'Â ¨ 1997 3.6 Laboratory glassware, reagents and standards of heavy metals All reagents used during analysis were of analytical reagent grade. Deionized water was used throughout the study. All the plastic and glassware to be used were decontaminated by overnight treatment using 5% nitric acid. 3.7 Standard Preparation 3.7.1 Lead (Pb) Standard Preparation Concentrations of lead solution that have been used for sample analysis are 1.0 ppm, 3.0 ppm and 6.0 ppm. From the original bottle of lead standard solution, 10 ml have been taken by using extremely clean pipette and transferred into 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. After dilution of the original solution, 1 ml, 3 ml and 6 ml of solution are taken and transferred into three different 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. All three concentrations are transferred into separate plastic tubes for analysis. 3.7.2 Cadmium (Cd) Standard Preparation Concentrations of cadmium solution that have been used for sample analysis are 0.5 ppm, 1.0 ppm and 2.0 ppm. From the original bottle of cadmium standard solution, 10 ml have been taken by using clean pipette and transferred into 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. After dilution, another 10 ml of solution were taken and transferred into three different 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. From dilution of 10 ml, another 5 ml of solution was taken and transferred into another 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. The solution that are made up of 5 ml, 1 ml and 2 ml solution are transferred into separate plastic tubes for analysis. 3.7.3 Chromium (Cr) Standard Preparation Concentrations of chromium solution that have been used in this study are 0.1 ppm, 0.2 ppm and 0.4 ppm. 10 ml of solution from the original bottle of chromium was taken and transferred into 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. Another 10 ml from diluted solution was taken and transferred into another 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. From newly diluted solution, 1 ml, 2 ml and 4 ml solution were taken and transferred into three different 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume. All three solutions were transferred into three separate plastic tubes for analysis. 3.8 Sample analysis The heavy metals in the samples were analyzed using Perkin Elmer 3300 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry under the conditions shown in Table 4. Calibration curves were constructed by running the standard solutions of each element as in the Table 5. The amounts the standards absorbed were compared with the calibration curve and this enabled the calculation of the heavy metals concentration of the samples. 3.9 Data analysis All the results achieved from the various analyses conducted in this study were transformed into graphs. The contents of heavy metals in different food packages were compared and the amounts of heavy metals in different solutions were analyzed. The values were also compared to the safety levels recommended by the regulatory authorities. CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS All results of the study are reported in Table 6 and Figure 1 (Content of heavy metals in food packages), Table 7 and Figure 2 (Content of heavy metals in foods), Table 8 and Figure 3 (Amount of heavy metals leached from food package in 3% Acetic Acid), Table 9 and Figure 4 (Amount of heavy metals leached from food pacakage in 4% Acetic Acid), Table 10 and Figure 5 (Amount of heavy metals leached from food package in deionized water). All data are expressed in mgkg-1. 4.1 Content of heavy metals in food packages FP 5 contained low concentration of lead (0.103 mgkg-1) but high in concentration of cadmium (8.955 mgkg-1) and chromium (2.989 mgkg-1). While in FP 6, there is a little bit high in concentration of lead (1.273 mgkg-1) but low in concentration of cadmium (0.801 mgkg-1) and chromium (0.754 mgkg-1). Those packages that contain high concentration of heavy metals are mainly because of the printing inks that have been used on its surface. Lead-based pigment could confer the colors of white, red and yellow, while chromium could confer colors of chrome yellow, green and red (Bradley et al. 2005). As cadmium have been used widely in plastic stabilizer, it would be possible that packages with high concentration of cadmium were come from this source. 4.2 Content of heavy metals in food Andrew (1992) has stated that, packaging is the most reason to food which gives an account to lead contamination. The used of lead-based ink on the surface of food packaging could migrate the lead substance into food itself. Apart from that, WHO (1992) says that grains contain lots of cadmium if compared to meat. That is why we can see that the cadmium content of FP 1 (2.574 mgkg-1) is much higher than concentration of cadmium in FP 3 (0.399 mgkg-1). Besides, it is noticeable that concentration of cadmium in FP 5 (0.175 mgkg-1) is much more lower compared to FP 3 eventhough the FP 5 substance is of grain. It could be of other product composition or added material into the meat product that contribute to higher concentration of cadmium. As in chromium, Fennema (2000) states that cocoa-based product could contribute to the higher concentration of chromium in its product. This statement explained well why the FP 2 and FP 6 product contains highest concentration of chromium subsequently, (1.179 mgkg-1) and (0.967 mgkg-1). According to Food Regulation 1985, milk product should only contained 1.0 mgkg-1 of lead and chromium while 2.0 mgkg-1 of lead and 1.0 mgkg-1 of cadmium in meat (other than edible gelatin), cocoa product and any food which no other limit is specified (excluding water and food additives). On top of that, only FP 6 (0.559 mgkg-1) does not exceed the lead concentration limit while both FP 1 (2.574 mgkg-1) and FP 2 (2.538 mgkg-1) do exceed the chromium permissible limit, whilst there is no limit for chromium concentration in food is stated in any part of the regulation. 4.3 Amount of heavy metals leached into food simulants The solution of 3% acetic acid was a food simulant which simulate the acidic condition which represents vinegar, pickles and fruit juices (Crosby, 1981). It indicates that, the metals would migrates in such amount when the package contact physically with the foodstuff having a pH in the exact of the food simulant. Besides, a migration could also happen towards human skin especially when the consumer deals with food which has similar pH condition of acetic acid before touching the food package. In a manner corresponding to Food Regulations 1985 in Thirteenth Schedule, the leachate of heavy metals from food packaging should not exceed the permissible limit, which was 0.2 mgkg-1 for cadmium and 2.0 mgkg-1 for lead. In this case, there was no limit exceeded by any of the samples. Once more, the FP 1 represents the second highest migration of lead (0.39 mgkg-1) and cadmium (0.155 mgkg-1). The purpose of doing the migration test simulated by 3% and 4% of acetic acid is to do a comparison whether there are any significant difference between both concentrations as Malaysian Food Regulation 1985 has come out with the test of using 4% acetic acid instead of standard method which used 3% acetic acid as food simulant. Obviously, there are no extensive differences between results produced by both concentrations. Thus, it is much better to do the migration test by using the standard method as it can save up the chemical being used. Deionized water simulate a condition which is closely similar to our skin. To this point, any contact between human skin (usually of palm and fingers) and the surface of food package at significant period of time, there will be a migration of heavy metals to contacted skin. After taking everything into account, it can be concluded that heavy metals does exist in the food packaging so do the food itself. According to Reilly (1991), print and color that applied to the plastic packages are capable of contaminating its food. Besides, pigments used for coloring and printing on packaging surface might also a good source of metals that leached into the food. Apart from that, tests using food simulant such as 3% and 4% acetic acid and deionized water, shows some variables in heavy metals migration. It is not a denial that migration of heavy metals from 4% acetic acid is much more higher compared to the other two. But, in consideration that there is no significant difference between both migrations, 3% of acetic acid would be more desirable in conducting the migration test using acidic food simulant as both pH also does not differ much. Other than simulating the pH condition of fruits and juices (Crosby 1981), the acidic condition also simulates the condition of a landfill. According to Hunt et al. (1990), food packaging accounts for almost two-thirds of total packaging waste by volume. Thus, those packaging dumps in a landfill could leached significant amount of heavy metals that they contained as they are exposed to the conditions as simulated by food simulants. Leaching of heavy metals could cause harm to the environment and its living creatures. Improperly designed landfills such landfill without leachate collection system and HDPE liner would contaminate groundwater sources when water from rain or the waste itself permeates the landfill and dissolves substances in the waste including toxic heavy metals. The acidic or alkaline conditions can enhance rapidly the extraction of these substances in the waste allowed them to seep into the ground, reaching for natural groundwater sources. According to Marsh and Bugusu (2007), lead and cadmium based additives for plastics and colorants contribute to the heavy metals content of MWC ash. Although the substances used is only small in amount, these metals concentrate in the ash as the polymers are burned off. The statement shows how much these heavy metals are persistent in our environment. Not only landfills that gather a number of heavy metals, but the worst are we are accumulating these kind of heavy metals in our body day by day through the consumptions of foods in packaging. In accordance to Marsh Bugusu (2007), we as a consumer drives the packaging design as our desires becomes sales significant. As we are the significant sales tools, would we change our desire for the sake of our own health? CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The use of heavy metals in printing inks and manufacturing of plastic used for food packaging are of great concern. Consumers are likely to be exposed to the migration of heavy metals through the consumption or come into contact of packaging food. Three tests have been carried out to determine the heavy metals namely lead, cadmium and chromium contained in food packaging, food itself and the ability of those heavy metals to migrate into food simulants. For the first test, four out of six samples contained high concentration of lead ranging from 4.159 mgkg-1 to 15.950 mgkg-1. The source of lead could come from the inorganic inks and pigments used (Kim et al. 2008). Food test show variables of heavy metal concentration contained by food. The concentrations vary according to source of food that could contribute to metal contents. Heavy metals contamination could also occur during the manufacturing process of food which comes from the stainless steel being used. Migration test using food simulant also shows varies concentration of heavy metals leached out from the food packages but none of them exceeded the permissible limit fixed by Malaysian Food Regulation 1985. Nevertheless, we should bear in mind that heavy metals do accumulates in human body especially targeted organs such as kidney and liver that could contribute to vital organ damage. Therefore, the metal-based pigment and inks used in printing on food package surface should be strictly regulated by Malaysian Food Regulation 1985. It is highly recommended for future study to come out with toxicological assessment specifically, Exposure Assessment to make a comparison with Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) in order to estimates the dietary intake of targeted group (Nasreddine 2002). It is crucial to actually determine if there are any risks related to an accidental consumption of a commodity with a level of heavy metal residue superior to the TDI sets by regulation (Nasreddine 2002). References Andrews, S.L., 1992. Lead and our environment, Extension Bulletin E-2416. Arvanitoyannis I.S., L. Bosnea, 2004. Migration of Substances from Food Packaging Materials to Foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 44: 63-76. Aurela, B. 2001. Migration of substances from paper and board food packaging materials, ISSN: 1457-6252. Bahemuka, T.E., E.B., Mubofu, 1999. Heavy metals in edible green vegetables grown along the sites of the Sinza and Msimbazi Rivers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Food Chem 66: 63-66. Berg, T., 1994. Lead in Food, Council of Europe Press. Birley, A.W., 1981. Plastics used in food packaging and the role of additives, Food Chemistry 8: 81-84. Bradley E.L., L. Castle, T.J. Dines, A.G. Fitzgerald, P. Gonzalez Tunon, S.M. Jickells, S.M. Johns, E.S. Layfield, K.A. Mountford, H. Onoh, I.A. Ramsay 2005. Test methof for measuring non-visible set-off from ins and lacquers on the food-contact surface of printed packaging materials, Food Additives Contaminants: Part A, 22:5,490-502. Bratakos, M.S., E.S. Lazos, and S.M. Bratakos 2002. Chromium content of selected Greek foods. The science of the Total Environment 290: 47-58. Brown, D., 1993. Plastics packaging of food products: the environmental dimension, Trends in Food Science Technology 4: 294-300. Cabrera-Vique, C., 2006. Chromium presence in foods and beverages: a review, Food Science Central Carrington, C.D., and P.M. Bolger, 1992. An assessment of the hazards of lead in food, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 16: 265-272. Cary, E.E. 1982. Chromium in air, soils, and natural waters, in Biological and environmental aspects of chromium, Langard, Ed., Elsevier Biomedical Press, New York: 49-63. Castle, L., 2007. Chemical migration into food: an overview in Chemical migration and food contact materials, ed. by Barnes, K.A., Sinclair, C.R., and Watson, D.H. pp: 7, Boca Raton, Woodhead Publishing Limited. Chandler, A. J. 1996. Characterising Cadmium in Municipal Solid Waste, Sources of Cadmium in the Environment, Inter-Organisation Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Pads, France. Coles, R., 2003. Introduction. In: Coles, R., McDowell, D., Kirwan, M.J., editors. Food packaging technology, London, UK. Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press: 1-31. Concon, J.M., 1988. Food Toxicology. Dekker, New York. Conti, M.E., 2008. Heavy metals in food packagings the state of the art, Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety Global Partnerships for Chemical Safety: 1-8. Cook, M.E. 1994 Cadmium Pigments: When Should I Use Them?, Inorganic Pigments.. Environmental Issues and Technological Opportunities, Industrial Inorganic Chemicals Group, Royal Society of Chemistry, London, January 12, 1994. Conti, M.E. and F. Botre.1997. The content of heavy metals in food packaging paper: an atomic absorption spectroscopy investigation. Food Control Vol 8(3): 131-136. Crosby, N.T. 1981. Food packaging materials. London, Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Eggenberger,U. and H.N., Waber 1998. Cadmium in Seepage Waters of Landfills: A Statistical and Geochemical Evaluation, Report of November 20, 1997 for the OECD Advisory Group on Risk Management Meeting, February 9-10, Pads. Ellen, G., Loon, J.W., Tolsma, K., 1990. Heavy metals in vegetables grown in the Netherlands and in domestic and imported fruits. Z. Lebensm Unters Forsc 190: 34-39. Fennema, O.R, 2000. Food Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York. Figge, K., 1980. Migration of components from plastics-packaging materials into packed goods- Test methods and diffusion models, Prog. Polym. Sci., Vol 6: 187-252. Gibson, R. 1998. Ultratrace elements. In: Mann, J. and Truswell, S., editors. Essentials of human nutrition: 176-178. Oxford University Press, New York. Golimowski, J., P. Valenta, and H.W. Nurnberg, 1979. Toxic trace metals in food, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 168: 353-359 (1979). Gopalani, M., M. Shahare, D.S. Ramteke, and S.R. Wate, 2007. Heavy metal content of potato chips and biscuits from Nagpur City, India, Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 79: 384-387 Grob K., 2008. The future of stimulants in compliance testing regarding the migration from food contact materials into food, Food control 19: 263-8. Grubinger, V.P., Gutermann, W.H., Doss, G.J., Rutzke, M., and Lisk, D.J., 1994. Chromium in Swiss chard grown on soil amended with tannery meal fertilizer; Chemosphere, 28(4), 717-720, 194. Guilbert, S., N. Gontard, and L.G.M. Gorris, 1986. Prolongation of the shel-flife of perishable food products using biodegradable films and coatings. Lebensmitted-Wissenschaft und-technologie, 29: 10-17. Guthrie, B., 1975. Chromium, manganese, copper, zinc, and cadmium content of New Zealand foods. New Zealand Medical Journal 82: 418- 424. Hunt, R.G., V.R. Sellers, W.E. Franklin, J.M. Nelson, W.L., Rathje, W.W Hughes, and D.C. Wilson, 1990. Estimates the volume of MSW and selected components in trash cans and landfills. Tucson, Ariz. Report prepared by The Garbage Project and Franklins Assn. Ltd. For the Council for Solid Waste Solutions. Hotchkiss, J.H., 1991. Food and packaging interactions: Penetration of fatty food simulants into rigid poly(vinyl)(chloride). J. Agrig. Food Chem.39:1927-32. Jenkins, W.A., J.P. Harrington, 1991. Packaging foods with plastics. Lancester Technomic: 1-10, 49-50 308. Katan, L.L., K. Figge, , D. Kilcast, , 1996. Migration from food contact materials, ed by L.L. Katan,: 5 8, 77, 52, 54-55, Chapman Hall, Blackie Academic Professional. Katz, E.E., and T.P. Labuza, 1981. Effect of water activity on the sensory crispness and mechanical deformation of snack food-products. J. Food Sci. 46: 403-409. Khunprasert, P., N. Grisdanurak, J. Thaveesri, V. Danutra, W. Puttitavorn, 2006. Radiographic film waste management in Thailand and cleaner technology for silver leaching. Journal of Cleaner Production: 1 9. Kilcast, D. 1996. Organoleptic assessment. In: Ed. L.L. Katan Migration from food contact materials. Chapman and Hall, 52, 54-55. Kim, K.C., Y.B. Park, M.J. Lee, J.B. Kim, J.W. Huh, D.H. Kim, J.B. Lee, and J.C. Kim, 2008. Levels of heavy metals in candy packages and candies likely to be consumed by small children, Food Research International 41(4): 411-418. Kimbrough, D.E, Y. Cohen, A.M. Winer, L. Creelman, C. Mabuni, 1999. A critical review assessment of chromium in the environment, Environmental Science and Technology, 29(1): 1-46. Lau, O.W., and S.K. Wong, 2000. Contamination in food from packaging material, Journal of Chromatoghraphy A 882: 255-270. Marsh, K., and B. Bugusu, 2000. Food Packaging- Roles, materials, and environmental issues, Journal of Food Science 72(3): 39-55. Meiron, T.S., I.S. Saguy, 2007. Wetting properties of food packaging, Food Research International 40: 653-659 Morgan, J.N. 1999. Effects of processing on heavy metal content of foods. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 459: 195-211. Muncke, J., 2009. Exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds via the food chain: Is packaging a relevant source, Science of the total environment 407: 4549-4559. Nasreddine, L., D. Parent-Massin, , 2002. Food contamination by metals and pesticides in the European Union. Should we sorry?, Toxicological letters 127: 29-41. Oswin, C.R., 1982. The selection of plastics films for food packaging, Food Chemistry 8: 121-127. Piringer, O., R. Franz, M. Huber, T.H. Begley, and T.P. McNeal, 1998. Migration from food packaging containing a functional barrier: mathematical and experimental evaluation, J. Agric. Food Chem. 46: 1532-1538. Rayment, G.E., Australian and some international food standards for heavy metals, Physical Environment, Torres Strait Baseline Study Conference: 155-164. Reilly, C. 1991. Metal contamination of food 2nd Ed., Elsevier Science Publisher LTD, University Press, Cambridge. Richard, F.C. and A.C.M. Bourg, 1991. Aqueous geochemistry of chromium: a review, Water Res., 25(7): 807-816. Rundh, B. 2005. The multi-faceted dimension of packaging, British Food Journal 107(9): 670-684. Shepherd, M.J. 1982. Trace contamination of foods by migration from plastics packaging- A review, Food Chemistry 8: 129-145. Sherlock, J.C. 1984. Cadmium in foods and the diet, Experientia 40: 152-156. Shils, M.E. J.A. Olson, and M. Shike, 1994. Modern nutrition in health and disease. Lea and Febiger, Malvern. Tennant, D.R. ed. by D.R. Tennant, 1997. Food Chemical Risk Analysis, Chapman Hall, Blackie Academic and Professional. Weisel, C., M. Demak, , MPH, Marcus, S.M., and Goldstein, B.D., 1991. Soft plastic bread packaging: Lead content and reused by families, American journal of public health, 81(6): 756-758. Wogan, G.N. and M.A. Marletta, ed. by O.R. Fennema, 1985. Food Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. World Health Organization (WHO) 1988. Chromium, Environ. Health Criter., Vol. 61,197. World Health Organization (WHO) 1992. Environmental Health Criteria 134 Cadmium International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) Monograph. Zagorska, J., I. D. Ciprovica, Karklina 2007. Case studies in food safety and environmental health. Eds. P. Ho., M.M.C. Veira, K. Kristbergsson. 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Differences Between Cyclops’ Free Essays

The comparison of Cyclops’ from historical contexts to new media In Greek mythology, the Cyclops was a member of the giant race, every one of them having one eye in the middle of their heads. The Cyclops’ were gigantic monsters who originated from Sicily which consumed human beings. Because of their horrific appearance there were banished to the underworld, but later set free from their prison by the Greek gods. We will write a custom essay sample on Differences Between Cyclops’ or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the X-Men series, the Cyclops is a character that is portrayed as a superhero. Published by Marvel comics, the Cyclops is a field agent leader who has a superpower from generated energy which is emitted through a laser beam. This energy comes directly from his eyes. This one eyed appearance is why he is called â€Å"Cyclops† as it originally comes from the one eyed Greek mythological monster. Cyclops is a sign of natural strength and force. In the X-Men series Cyclops is considered as one the members of the powerful circle of heroes. This strength was innate, Cyclops knew about this power from a young age, so he joined with the other cluster of superheroes to train and develop this power into a way in which society could benefit. In a sense this power is man-made; Cyclops developed a laser over his eyes as he could not expose his eyes to sunlight. This man-made creation therefore represents modern technology in society, as without societies’ innovative inventions, modern technology cannot expand. This in comparison to Cyclops in Greek mythology differs as the Cyclops’ forces and strengths are not man-made they are in fact raw and natural. The Cyclops from Greek mythology are said to be humongous and strong with natural force. The Cyclops’ appearance shows an insight to the promoted era. In the newly developed interpretation of the Cyclops, he is portrayed as a normal person with humanistic traits. Cyclops wears clothes such as pants, shirts, and jackets thus looking like a human. Also, Cyclops is portrayed with muscles and handsome to give that modern day attraction factor for its audience. He is also shown wearing sunglasses to cover his eyes to make him look even more fashionable to relate to modern day society. We can link this too the society of today as universally, the world is judged by fashion. As the Cyclops from the X-Men series is shown as a fashionable character, the audience can relate to him and this takes away that actually he is a monster in disguise. The Greek mythological representation of the Cyclops is comprised as a giant, ugly looking, one-eyed monster that has no teeth and no clothes. This is the total opposite to how the Cyclops is portrayed in modern day media through movies and comics. This shows the transformation of contemporary normalities from the before Christ era, to modern society. It is a social normality to be fashionable and to look good. So, by Cyclops adapting these qualities through his character in X-Men it derives a link between the character and social conformities. The Cyclops represents a certain level of vulnerability. Cyclops from Greek mythology has one eye which we can indicate that the monster is somewhat exposed to the things around him. It is said that because Cyclops has only one eye, this therefore represents people who see through only one perspective. This narrow mind relates to susceptibility in actions as only having one eye limits the vision. The X-Men figure also has this exposure; in his case if his glasses or laser is removed he will be harmed by the light as it will burn his eyes. This shows vulnerability. This relates to humanistic traits in modern day society as everyone is assailable to things in life and it just shows even a monster can be too. So for the monster to be portrayed in such a way, it suggests that we are no different from the monster, and the monster is inside of us. The way the Cyclops is presented in new media represents technological expansion. The Cyclops from Greek mythology is portrayed to have no weapons, no clothes or no powers. As this era of living was before Christ, technology of any sort was a myth. On the other hand, Cyclops from X-Men is shown to have a laser as an eye, armour with his costume and other kinds of machinery. This relates to modern society as it shows how digital technology has enlarged over the generations. This also ties in to the monster having humanistic traits, as most of the innovative ideas of design and creative come from the human brain, all in which are presented with the Cyclops. Also, we can unravel that this represents the economic growth of the world. Without the funds, technology cannot expand and inventions cannot be made. Back in time this couldn’t have been possible as the money was non-existent. After uncovering all of these concepts, it’s clear that the representation of the Cyclops has come a long way from Greek mythology to the way modern day society is exposed to this monster in contemporary media. The new and improved Cyclops represents how humans have adapted from generation to generation, from innovative design, wealth and appearance. The director does a great job in tying these traits of the Cyclops together and linking them with the surrounding audience. The director uses all these humanistic views through the Cyclops very cleverly as the audience can relate to all of traits portrayed, from vulnerability to the cares of appearance, the urge to look good. Modern audiences are exposed to the Greek mythological representation of the Cyclops as a huge, ugly, raw character. So for them to be displayed to contemporary audiences through the X-Men version it gives them a better understanding of the origins of the Cyclops and how the visual adaptation has been altered to satisfy social normalities. How to cite Differences Between Cyclops’, Papers

Teen pregnancies research paper free essay sample

The teean Pregnancy rate amongst sexually experienced teens in 2006 was 152. 8 pregancies per 1000 women, aged 15-19. This is a problem because we have to lower the pregnancy rate amongst teens becoming pregnant. A huge reason why we have to lower the rate is because this can cause the pregnant teen health issues. It can also ruin there lives. Teen Pregnancy is a growing problem in America and it needs to be addressed. Over time the rate of this issue has had its ups and downs. First, the rate of pregnancies increased in 2006. In 2006, teen pregnancy occurred to 7 percent of all women aged 15 to 19. Also, the rates have gotten even larger since 2006 and arent getting any better. The teenage birth rate in 2006 was 41. 9 births per 1000 women. Also, between 1988 and 2000, teenage birth rates declined in every stae and between 2000 and 2005 they fell in every stae except North Dakota and in 2006 they rose. Another factorthat has gone up and down in the past is the average rate at which a teen can become pregnant. We will write a custom essay sample on Teen pregnancies research paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The average rate at which a teen could become pregnant used to be 18 but in the present day that has changed to that a girl can become pregnant at arount 12 to 13 years old. This means that If a girl can be getting pregnant at arount 13 years old she has a way more likely chance of becoming pregnant in her later teen years. But also, this shows that we should not be blaming a teen pregnancy on the children having sex, we should also blame it on science because if it could not be possible for a teen to have a baby and become pregnant than it wouldt happen. Although they can be becoming pregnant at that young of an age they should not evn be having sex. A teenage should not be having sex until they are at least 17 or 18. There are many reasons why teens become pregnant. Fist, they might become pregnant unintendedly. An unplanned pregnancy can cause the teen many health issues. An unplanned pregnancy immediately causes the teen physical, emotional, psychological, and practical consequences. Pregnacy also can cause health risks do to behaviors. Shokingly, 85 percent of all teen pregnancies are unplanned! Second, A teen Pregnancie can be planned. Some of teens who become pregnant are in fact, married. Although a pregnancie can be planned a pregnancie can also be unwanted by the parents of the children. If a pregnancie is unwanted by either or both of the parents, then that can also cause emotional issues. Although, most of planned pregnancies are wanted. There are many things that we can do to prevent the teen pregnancie. First, the parents can help prevent there child from becoming pregnant. If a teen has parents who push abstinence are 12 percent more likely to stay a virgin than a person who doesnt. Despite t. v. , peer pressure, despite hormones, the single biggest influence on whether a teen will have sex is there parents. To make children postpone sex will help not to talk about birth control. Also, letting your children know openly that you expect them not to have sex will help them chose to postpone it. And third, teaching teens abstinence will help prevent teen pregnancies. Finally, each of these methods for parents will double the likelyness that your child decides to stay a virgin. And a final good way to prevent the pregnancies is for parents to have good relationaships with there kids. There are also many, many consequences to becoming pregnant as a teen. The first consequence to becoming pregnant as a teen is STD infections. In 1996. 1. 5 million people including 350,000 children and youth died of aids. Also abstinence programs will not prevent the new hiv infections. Other than STDs there are also many other consequences to becoming pregnant as a teen. First, other than STDs teen pregnancy will cause education issues. For example, Teen mothers are way less likely to finish high school than a teenager who doesnt become pregnant until she is a grown up. This also means that since the teen is less likely to finish high school then they are also way less likely to regraduate and go to collage. Another thing that will cause the girls to quit school and not go to collage is that 60 percent of all teen mothers are living in poverty at the time of birth. This will show that they will probably not have enough money to raise the baby let alone pay to go to collage. Since 4 out of 20 girls become pregnant before the age of 20 then so many girls are going to be out of school and in even in debt because of 1 little mistake of having unprotected sex before they were ready. This is another huge reason why we need to work to help stop this issueand if we dont this will keep happening to hundreds of thousands of girls each year. This will ruin lives period. Also, Pregnancie can cause immediate physical, psychological, and emotional consequences for the pregnant teen and or the man. Another concequence that can take place as one said on Our health, Our future web page is â€Å"women who become pregnant during there teens are at an increased risk for complications, such as premature birth. †(anonymouse, Our Health Our Future teen pregnancie page). This is an important statement because it sais that becoming pregnant as a teen can not only be harmful for the pregnant teen but for the baby as well. Another problem facing teens that is a problem is the abortion rate. As the rate of pregnancies increases the rate of abortion increases as well. Also as an anonymouse person said â€Å"reducing teen pregnancy and birth is one of the most efffecitive ways of reducing child poverty†(Anonymouse, Our Health, Our Future teen pregnancy page). This shows that teen pregnancy is a major cause of child poverty and if we reduce the pregnany rate we will reduce the child poverty rate. Another important quote about the teen pregnancy in america is â€Å"it is hard to raise a child when you are still a child. † (anonymouse, Our Health Our Future teen pregnancy web page). This shows that the teen pregnancies that are occuring are not likely to raise a babysuccesfully. Also, this is another reason why we should be working to end teen pregnancy. And last but not least another huge consequence of having so many teeanage pregnancies in america is that it will cost the teen and the teens parents so much money. The teenage pregnancies in the U. S costs the nationat least 7 billion dollars anualy. If we lowered the teen pregnancie rate in america we could lower the american debt which would help economicaly as well as health wise and emotionaly which is another big reason we should be trying to stop this problem. Thus, teen pregnancy is a problem for society because it will have so many consequences and so many other problems. If we teach all of our kids abstinence, created by that there is hope for us to lower the pregnancy rate amongst teens. Individuals need to practice abstinence to prevent the problem because if the teens arent having sex they arent becoming pregnant. Teen pregnancy is increacing at a fast rate and we need to do all we can to stop it, or even just lower the abnormaly high rate.